Language+&+Linguistics

By Stacey D. and Andrew S. **INTRODUCTION** Language and linguistics lay the foundation for bilingual and second language programs in America. Effective methods for implementing both aspects remain highly debated by educators and politicians alike. Educators must accept responsibility for providing adequate time and proper instructional methods for each second language learner while incorporating a new language into their ever changing lives. Children must be shown the commonalities between their first language and their newly acquired second language. It is imperative that second language learners continue to acquire and expand their first language in order to nurture and expand their second language acquisition skills.
 * Language and Linguistic Foundations **

Sustaining and promoting a child’s first language is essential when a second language is introduced. However, political mandates enforced in classrooms create unspoken mandates encouraging children to forget their native language in lieu of their second language. Political agendas concerned with verifiable outcomes often win out over the educational agenda of individual personal and academic achievement. Initially, this is evident when second language learners are taught how to take a test rather than how to acquire and enhance their second language skills. Secondly, this is evidenced when the allocation of educational dollars rests solely on passing a test rather than actual language acquisition. America became a great nation by welcoming myriads of people whose rich cultures and languages define who we are today. Embracing those cultures and languages in the education process will lead to a more progressive nation as a whole. **MAIN POINTS** 1. The United States has a multilingual history, despite what some conservative critics would like to believe; our country has been a melting pot not just of cultures, but also of languages. Different languages have been more or less accepted than others through the nation’s history, and many people today may be unaware as to the extent of their non-English linguistic roots. 2. English is the dominant language of the country. However, many other minority languages exist and serve fundamental purposes for millions of Americans. These minority languages serve as connections between different generational groups. They also help maintain traditions and customs. 3. The English language in the U.S. should not be viewed in concrete terms; rather it is fluid and dynamic and has changed significantly over the years. The language has been influenced by cross-cultural exchanges, immigration, international business, and of course, technological advancements. 4. Second language learners can face many difficulties. Some of these include: social biases, varied abilities and backgrounds, as well as different learning styles, and a wide spectrum of socio-economic backgrounds. Schools also participate in creating difficulties for students. Many schools utilize programs, which have been found to be ineffective. School policy is often based more on politics and money than on sound research. 5. “Sink or Swim” is a bad educational policy. The fallacy is that only particular groups fail to adapt; in reality many groups in U.S. history have been forced into “Sink or Swim” scenarios and have done poorly. This policy has a high rate of failure across the board and can also cause pain and trauma, something that teachers want their students to avoid at all costs. 6. Some advocates of the “English only” approach to education use issues regarding confusion that arises in bilingual environments. These advocates point to “mistakes” by bilingual children such as when they use more than one language in the same sentence. However, research indicates that children are able to differentiate between languages while using them in the same sentence. Children will actually choose which language to use depending on the context. 7. There are different stages of language acquisition and students should be aware of these stages. Teachers however, must have a plan of instruction when dealing with second-language learners. Proper assessment tools can help teacher’s measure students’ progress. Continued assessment insures that students’ educations do not become stagnant, that incorrect ideas do not “fossilize,” and that progress is made at a pace which teachers and students are comfortable. 8. Students who are given a bilingual education can actually develop better levels of proficiency in their second language (L2) than students who are simply pushed into the L2. Over the long-run it is clear that having a stronger foundation in the first language, (L1) serves as a crucial aid in proper acquisition of the L2. Ballantyne, K. (2008) //Learning a Second Language While You are Still Working on the First.// Washington, D.C.: National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition Newsletter. Retrieved on February, 7, 2009 from []. This article identifies several barriers that second language learners face. The barriers encompass social bias, learning styles, socioeconomic issues, and ineffective assistance from schools. Addressing all of the barriers, as outlined in the article, will help ensure that second language learners begin their educational growth in a more fertile arena. S.D.
 * LINKS AND ANNOTATIONS**

Bredekamp, S. (2000) //What Early Childhood Teachers Need to Know About Language//. Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics Digest, 1. doi: EDO-FL-00-07 Retrieved on February, 7, 2009, from [] This article speaks about the importance of language in Early Childhood Programs. It recognizes an educational imperative regarding quality early educational programs being implemented to insure all children of equal footing when starting kindergarten. The theme of the article states that Early Childhood teachers must have extensive higher education in the areas of language and language acquisition in order to adequately prepare the children in these programs for kindergarten. S.D.

Center for Applied Linguistics. (n.d.) //What is Linguistics?// Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics Digest. Retrieved on February 15th, 2009 from [] This article is helpful because it summarizes the history of linguistics and how it has become an important field of study in modern times. It wasn’t until the 1700’s and 1800’s that people even began to study linguistics as they searched for commonalities between different languages with issues such as grammar. Today linguistics has many sub-fields, and it has a wide range of applications. Linguistics is often applied to social and political issues; and it is also a field of science. A.S.

Crawford, J (1996) // Seven Hypotheses on Language Loss: Causes and Cures // Retrieved on February 12th, 2009 from [| http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/pubs/stabilize/ii-policy/hypotheses.htm] Over time every language will change or evolve, but some languages can disappear (as is the case with indigenous languages after the arrival of the Europeans). There are many reasons for the disappearance of a language, from genocide to assimilation. Assimilation can come in many forms, whether it is in schools, work, or friends. Mass media can also change language and the way we look at it. Abandoning one’s original language or adopting a new dominant language can occur for many reasons. It can be out of necessity, it can be done without knowing, and sometimes the minority language speaker might even feel that there is something superior in the dominant language. Bilingual education and a desire to maintain one’s cultural identity can help maintain many of our rich and diverse minority languages. A.S.

Cummins, J. (n.d.) // Bilingual Children's Mother Tongue: Why Is It Important for Education? // Retrieved on February 12th, 2009 from [] This article is about the growing language diversity in many schools, not just in the United States, but also in Canada and Europe. Different political parties have different views on language education. The assimilation policies of forcing students to give up their mother tongue can be dangerous, and cause problems with the student’s personal and academic achievement. This article provides evidence that the class discussion we had regarding “sink or swim” is accurate, that it is a poor education policy. A.S.

Cummins, J. (n.d.) // Putting Language Proficiency in Its Place: Responding to Critiques of the Conversational / Academic Language Distinction. // Retrieved on February, 7, 2009 from []. This article identifies that two arenas exist when trying to identify language proficiency: conversational and academic. The author identifies a myriad of issues which are rarely contemplated by policy makers when trying to implement education programs for bilingual or trilingual students. The question of whether it is possible to create a valid assessment of language proficiency is debated in length. S.D.

De Houwer, A. (1999) //Two or More Languages in Early Childhood: Some General Points and Practical Recommendations//. Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics Digest, 1. EDO-FL-99-03 Retrieved on February 12, 2009 from [] This article talks about the bilingual and sometimes multilingual nature of many children’s development. Bilingualism is not something being invented; it is a reality. Between people who have to work in different cities and different countries, to children hearing different languages at home, school, or on the street, nobody is inventing bilingualism. We live in a multilingual world, and it is better to accept it and embrace it. Most interesting about this article is that it says that children who use more than one language in the same sentence are not confused. In reality, many children know what they are doing, and will use both languages depending on who they are talking to. The same children can make plenty of sentences in only one language, but their usage of two languages in one sentence will develop into a skill, not a hindrance. A.S.

Lee-Bayha, J. (2005) //Teaching Practices: Language Loss.// Sacramento, CA: WestEd Health and Human Development Program. Retrieved on February, 7, 2009, from []. This article speaks about language loss and how it occurs when a minority group member cannot do the things with the minority language he or she used to be able to do; or when some of the proficiency is no longer available. Language loss may also refer to incomplete or imperfect learning of a language spoken in childhood. S.D.

McLaughlin, B. (1995) //Fostering Second Language Development in Young Children.// Washington, D.C.: National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning. Retrieved on February, 7, 2009 from []. This article speaks about eight principles about second language acquisition; the type of instruction needed to implement its acquisition; and vital information to be considered during the educational process when working with linguistically diverse students. Most importantly the article states that second language acquisition occurs in stages and students must be made aware of this fact. S.D.

Wiley, T. (1997) //Myths about Language Diversity and Literacy in the United States//. Washington, D.C.: Center for Adult English Language Acquisition. Retrieved on February 12, 2009 from [] I found this article particularly helpful in refuting the arguments made by those politicians and educators who oppose bilingual education. The article restates some basic ideas that were in the book for instance, the fact that we are not an English-speaking nation, but rather, a multilingual nation with English as the dominant language. Many people fail to recognize that we also have a long history of multilingualism in the United States, and that what is going on today is really nothing new. Full immersion in English does not work as well as Bilingual education, since students who receive a bilingual education have been shown to actually develop higher levels of proficiency in the long-run. A.S. 